Law

Bar association

A bar association is a professional association of lawyers as generally organized in countries following the Anglo-American types of jurisprudence. The word bar is derived from the old English/European custom of using a physical railing to separate the area in which court business is done from the viewing area for the general public.

Some bar associations are responsible for the regulation of the legal profession in their jurisdiction; others are professional organizations dedicated to serving their members; in many cases, they are both. In many Commonwealth jurisdictions, the bar association comprises lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates in particular, versus solicitors (see bar council). Membership in bar associations may be mandatory or optional for practicing attorneys, depending on jurisdiction.

Criminal procedure

Presumption of innocence

Reasonable doubt

Lawyer

A lawyer is a person who practices law. The role of a lawyer varies greatly across different legal jurisdictions. A lawyer can be classified as an advocate, government lawyer, attorney, barrister, canon lawyer, civil law notary, counsel, counselor, solicitor, legal executive, or public servant — with each role having different functions and privileges.

Prosecutor

检察官，又名公诉人、检控官、控方律师，为法律工作者。无论在欧陆法系或英美法系，检察官均是进行刑事追诉的主导者，在一些法制中，检察官也是公众利益、国家利益的代表人。

检察官制可追溯于法国中古时期，封建贵族的家臣procureur，直到法国大革命后，刑事诉讼制度于1795年彻底改制，具有现代雏型的检察官制度才相应而生。1808年，拿破仑制定《拿破仑刑法典》（Code d’Instruction Criminelle）将检察官制度定型。

随着拿破仑的东征西讨，虽然最终兵败滑铁卢，检察官制度却在欧洲各国生根。德意志诸邦在19世纪初叶亦渐次采行法国检察官制度，在1848年革命风潮后几已成各邦共行之法制，随后普法战争法国大败，本学习法国法制的日本转而学习德意志帝国的检察官制度，中国清朝透过日本学习欧陆法制，亦采德意志立法例，制定法院编制法，引入检察官制的先声。中华民国于1935年施行新制法院组织法及刑事诉讼法，正式采行检察官制度。

Defendant

In court proceedings, a defendant is a person or object who is the party either accused of committing a crime in criminal prosecution or against whom some type of civil relief is being sought in a civil case.

Barrister

A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation. Their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the law and giving expert legal opinions.

Solicitor

Plaintiff

In criminal cases, the prosecutor brings the case against the defendant, but the key complaining party is often called the “complainant”.

Tribunal

Conviction

Insanity defense

Affirmation

Sworn testimony

I swear by Almighty God that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.

Civil law

  • China
  • Japan
  • Russia
  • France
  • Germany
  • Louisiana (U.S.)

Common law

  • United States
  • England
  • Singapore
  • Hong Kong

Religious law

  • Iran
  • Saudi Arabia
  • Afghanistan

Contract law

Mediator: a person who attempts to make people involved in a conflict come to an agreement; a go-between.

Marriage

从夫姓

  • 在欧美地区（西班牙语和葡萄牙语区除外），妻从夫姓是一种历史悠久常见的习俗，直到20世纪下半叶开始有反对的声音。从1960年代后期至1990年代早期，伴随着女性主义的进展，西方女士结婚后选择保留其娘家姓氏。
  • 现代的中国大陆除了在族谱和墓碑外已经几乎完全不用“冠夫姓”这种形式，香港在正式场合中冠上夫姓的女性多为政府官员或名门望族的女性。

Spain

Spanish naming customs

Spanish names are the traditional way of identifying, and the official way of registering, a person in Spain. They comprise a given name (simple or composite) and two surnames (the first surname of each parent). Traditionally, the first surname is the father’s first surname, and the second is the mother’s.

西班牙人一般没有妇从夫姓的习俗

International

Statistics

Global Gender Gap Report

International law

International law (also known as public international law and the law of nations) is the set of rules, norms, and standards generally recognized as binding between states. It establishes normative guidelines and a common conceptual framework for states across a broad range of domains, including war, diplomacy, economic relations, human rights.

Geneva Conventions

The Geneva Conventions are four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish international legal standards for humanitarian treatment in war. The singular term Geneva Convention usually denotes the agreements of 1949, negotiated in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–1945), which updated the terms of the two 1929 treaties and added two new conventions. The Geneva Conventions extensively define the basic rights of wartime prisoners, civilians and military personnel, established protections for the wounded and sick, and provided protections for the civilians in and around a war-zone.

International organization

International Energy Agency

The International Energy Agency (IEA) is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organisation, established in 1974, that provides policy recommendations, analysis and data on the entire global energy sector, with a recent focus on curbing carbon emissions and reaching global climate targets, including the Paris Agreement.

International Criminal Court

The International Criminal Court (ICC or ICCt) is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression.

International non-governmental organization

World Economic Forum

The World Economic Forum (WEF) is an international non-governmental and lobbying organisation based in Cologny, canton of Geneva, Switzerland.

Political association

Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, simply referred to as the Commonwealth, is a political association of 56 member states, the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire.

System of measurement

1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches